Catcher In The Rye Essay

A journey is more than a physical movement from one place to another. All journeys no matter how arduous entail setbacks and barriers that must be met. In doing so the traveller experiences a more significant inner journey of self growth. This is evident in the journey from adolescence to adulthood during which setbacks and barriers may entail a loss of innocence. J. D Salinger’s novel the Catcher in the rye explores this concept through various literary techniques. ( thesis) Loss of innocence as a major issue within the concept of a rites of passage is explored by J. D Salinger through the protagonist Holden Caulfield. His journey appears to be one self destructive act after another. This adult world into which Holden is forced into disturbs him profoundly. In his view, the adults who dwell this world, seem to be filled with phoniness, pretence and social compromise. He finds it almost intolerable to communicate with most adults and peers. This is prevalent throughout the book when he constantly brings up the question of what happens to the ducks in winter. The adults’ response to this recurring question is of contemn and expectation to know the answer, therefore never giving him an adequate explanation. This clearly demonstrates how his innocent mind conflicts with this phony adult world, and his response, is to rebel against this whole society. â€Å" quote† Holden expresses his rebellion through his inability to progress in life and his hatred of people. It is really only in children that he sees the true simplicity of honesty- and that is his escape from this adult phony world. Salinger portrays the transition from adolescence to adulthood as a quest for self identity and self discovery. For Holden however, his journey is a bombardment of obstacles in his search for connection with others, thus highlighting the angst of growing up. Holden finally breaks down with the constant disappointments and let downs he encounters. â€Å"quote ans technique† From his fight with Stradlater to Maurice’s exploitation of a prostitute, to Mr Antolini’s behaviour, Holden just cannot handle any more letdowns so his odyssey is one of loneliness and cynicism. An example of this is when Holden abruptly gives Sally an ultimatum to leave their current lives behind and build a future without the promise of stability. Sally’s refusal to this proposal results in Holden lashing out at her hence elucidating Holden’s naivety. And, just like a kid, he thinks that everyone is to blame except for him. The inability to meet setbacks and barriers and accept a loss of innocence within the jouney from adolescence to adulthood will inevitably lead to ones downfall. The deliberate irony is that Holden strives to act as a grown up but constantly acts like a child is seen in his provocation of his peers and his irrational thinking. â€Å"quote † The title of the book, â€Å"Catcher in the Rye,† is more than just a pretty ditty. It is Holden’s dream to be the catcher in the rye, thus save little children from falling off the cliff into adulthood. â€Å"Anyway, I keep picturing all these little kids playing some game in this big field of rye and all. Thousands of little kids, and nobody’s around–nobody big, I mean–except me. And I’m standing on the edge of some crazy cliff. What I have to do, I have to catch everybody if they start to go over the cliff–I mean if they’re running and they don’t look where they’re going. I have to come out from somewhere and catch them. That’s all I’d do all day. I’d just be the catcher in the rye and all. I know it’s crazy, but that’s the only thing I’d really like to be. † Holden is adamant on playing the adult role of protecting children and their innocence that gets lost in the adult phony world. He envisions protecting and shielding children from the evils of society, when he himself is one who is in a state of conflict between adolescence and adulthood. However, it is through the telling of his story that Holden eventually gains control of his disturbed past. His search for self identity and discovery can be seen as a search for tolerance, acceptance and understanding- something that he finally experiences in the final scene with Phoebe riding the carrousel. When he see’s Phoebe on the carrousel, he accepts that he is not a child anymore indicating that he is perhaps more accepting of change. Towards the end, Holden has found some wisdom when he claims to â€Å"sort of miss everyone. † There was some light for him at the end of the tunnel- and that light is hope and acceptance that he doesn’t live in such an evil world that he made out to be. Holden wants desperately to protect this idealistic life but perhaps he realises at the end that it is not possible and that maturity is a means of accepting what life throws at one. How he deals with obstacles along the way conveys Holden’s journey from adolescence into adulthood.

Led Zeppelin: A Decade That Changed Rock Music Essay

Led Zeppelin was formed in 1968 and disbanded in 1980. During that interval there were dramatic changes in rock music, its mythologies, the industry, and its audience. Through circumstance, design, and luck the band occupied a central position in some of the most significant of these developments. The band’s impact on rock was music was noteworthy: Led Zeppelin rewrote all the record books. All subsequent bands were measured by the standards it set. As with few other popular bands, the truth depends upon the perspective one takes. Since Led Zeppelin’s demise popular music and its institutions have changed significantly, in this paper, I will attempt to give both sides their due by sketching a measured image of the band and the role it played in the development of seventies rock music. It will be seen that the band emerged at a transitional period in popular music, and that partisans and critics alike hold it responsible for changes that characterized rock music in the seventies. Led Zeppelin was formed by Jimmy Page in late-1968. It rose from the ashes of the Yardbirds, a blues-rock band that, along with the Beatles and the Rolling Stones, was one of the first-generation British groups. Despite the fact that it had been extremely successful in the United States, the group had little success in its native country. One of the band’s central claims to fame was that it employed in succession Eric Clapton, Jeff Beck, and Jimmy Page. Today, these musicians are revered as the holy trinity of white, English, rock-blues guitarists (Cole and Trubo 13-14). Page, a highly regarded session guitarist who played on numerous British hits, selected the musicians that would form his band. He first recruited another accomplished session musician, John Paul Jones, to play bass and keyboards. Discovering that his first choice for vocalist, Terry Reid, was unavailable he selected the relatively unknown Robert Plant. Plant, in turn, suggested a friend and former band-mate, John Bonham — â€Å"Bonzo† affectionately — to play drums. In their first rehearsal together, the four played the Yardbirds’ â€Å"The Train Kept a ‘Rollin. † The session has been described as â€Å"magic† by all present. The rest, as they say, is history (Yorke 21-3). Led Zeppelin, along with Blue Cheer, Black Sabbath, and Grand Funk, was a progenitor of the musical style known as â€Å"heavy metal† rock. As the name suggests, the genre features loudly amplified music that emphasizes the bottom register. Live or on a good stereo, its heaviness has a distinct somatic component — the throb of the guitar, bass, and drums can all be felt the in listener’s gut. Commentators interpret the genre as one of a number that emerged from the decomposition of psychedelic music in the late sixties (Straw 97-110), According to Straw, early heavy metal had three dominant stylistic traits; first, was the â€Å"cult† of the lead guitarist. Heavy metal bands were formed around guitar playing â€Å"geniuses† who were revered by fans for their instrumental prowess. As Weinstein reminds us, this extended to their use of, â€Å"A wide range of electronic gadgetry, such as wah-wah pedals and fuzz boxes† (Weinstein 23). Second, was the notion of the â€Å"power trio,† and other references to musical virtuosity. Unlike â€Å"pop† or commercial bands, whose relationship to musicianship was accidental at best, metal bands were made up of highly proficient musicians. Third, was the â€Å"supergroup† phenomenon, and the importance of extended solo playing that discarded the temporal limits of the pop song (Straw 97). As Weinstein observes, many of these attributes could also be discerned within pre-metal acts such as Hendrix or Cream (16-17). Later, the genre’s characteristics would sediment into distinctive stage shows, album cover designs, and audience dress and life styles. The success of this style has been interpreted as reflecting the emergence of a new rock audience, composed in Davis’ view, of, â€Å"Boys and young men between fifteen and twenty-four, an audience who like their rock to be loud, Anglo-Saxon, violent, 4/4, martial. The girls weren’t really at this party. It wasn’t a dance† (Davis 63). Audition tapes in hand, Led Zeppelin’s manager, Peter Grant, negotiated a five-album, ? 200,000 package with Atlantic Records in late 1969 (Lewis 45). In addition, the band was given complete artistic control over its music and album cover design. This was an unprecedented deal for a band that had yet to release a single album, and said as much for the negotiating skills of the principals as it did for the label’s expectations of the group’s potential for commercial success. In a move bound to raise more than a few eyebrows, the band removed the â€Å"a† from Lead Zeppelin, reportedly so that American fans would not mispronounce it. The magnitude of the deal would lead to charges that the band was based on â€Å"hype† rather than solid musicianship (Weinstein). Led Zeppelin’s early musical output fits squarely within the above stylistic categories. As Rockwell argues, its music was, â€Å"Essentially a prolongation of the nineteen-sixties British blues-rock tradition† (Rockwell n. p. ). Rather than offering a reinterpretation of the path laid down by its predecessors, the band’s music mutated the genre, creating a new offshoot. Two direct examples may be found on the band’s first album, Led Zeppelin: Willie Dixon’s â€Å"I Can’t Quit You† and â€Å"You Shook Me. † No mere covers, each song served as a point of departure for amplified, distorted, and shrieking musical efforts. Equally characteristic was the way Led Zeppelin offered up portentously expanded variants on American and British folk music. Songs such as â€Å"Babe, I’m Gonna Leave You† from the first album, or â€Å"Gallows Pole,† from the third, start with a vocal accompanied by an amplified acoustic guitar, building to complex tapestries of electrified sound and crashing drums (Yorke 72-4). These effects were realized by the way that Page used his guitar and electronic wizardry to explore the coloristic possibilities of distortion. Plant, on the other hand, used his voice like an instrument. This upset the vocal technique traditionally used by blues singers, which had required them to project emotion. Writing of this practice, Christgau argues, â€Å"Its influence on popular singing has been so widespread that, at least among males, singing and emoting have become almost identical — it is a matter of projection rather than hitting the notes† (n. p. ). Thus, singers like Bob Dylan or Neil Young who, by their own admission possessed little vocal talent, could be excused, or even revered, because of their ability to communicate not only lyrical content, but feelings. Plant’s vocals, in contrast, were devoid of feeling in the traditional sense. The expressive possibilities were found in the sound of his voice rather than in the lyric’s meaning (Lewis 67). No longer chained to lyrics, Plant used his voice as a sound rather than to express emotion, which often meant that a song’s lyrical content was often obscure or indecipherable. Led Zeppelin’s music did not emote in the traditional sense. Even the band’s acoustic work — sounds traditionally coded as â€Å"sincere† and â€Å"warm† — was sometimes interpreted as lacking feeling. The often meant that critics would interpret the band’s music as cold, or charge that it was just undifferentiated noise. With his characteristic penchant for hyperbole, Lester Bangs referred to Led Zeppelin’s music as, â€Å"The tonal equivalent of a 1933 Nuremburg rally (â€Å"Mighty† 62). An analysis of the band’s lyrical themes reveals a variety of topics and sources of inspiration. In Led Zeppelin’s early music, lyrical content, vocal style, and instrumental attack, often exemplify an aggressive, swaggering, male sexuality. All are found within the band’s â€Å"Whole Lotta Love,† one of its early hits. Recorded in 1969, the song has a â€Å"dirty† sounding, three-note riff, that has become one of rock’s most recognizable. Plant sung the lyrics, â€Å"borrowed† from Willie Dixon’s â€Å"You Need Love,† with his best histrionic ardor (Davis). Accompanied by the vocalist howling in orgasmic frenzy, the song’s middle section has churning, swirling, electronic sound effects that move from left to right speakers. On the same album, however, one finds â€Å"Ramble On,† a song that embodies and presages Robert Plant’s fascination with Tolkien-inspired imagery and Celtic themes. Undoubtedly, its lyrics owe a debt to traditional, blues-based tales of ‘ramblin men, who â€Å"have no time for spreading roots. † Ultimately, however, the song breaks from that mold by restating the narrative within the vernacular of an unrelenting, mythical quest for â€Å"the queen of all my dreams† (Lewis). Such songs are characteristic of Led Zeppelin’s output, and provide insight into what differentiated the band from its precursors. For Straw, one of the characteristics of their music was a, â€Å"Consistent non-invocation of rock history or mythology in any self-conscious or genealogical sense† (103). While he views this as a generic quality, it is particularly relevant to the analysis of Led Zeppelin’s music. Put differently, when Plant copped blues lyrics for a song it was rarely to evoke a specific musical mood or period. Instead, they became part of a larger musical dynamic. True, a song such as â€Å"Bring it on Home,† may have begun with the harmonica and voice mannerisms of an old, black, blues singer, but its inclusion was based primarily on architectural considerations rather than of a desire to pay homage to American urban music of the twenties and thirties. This misunderstanding is part of the reason that someone like Lester Bangs would write that Led Zeppelin’s, â€Å"Albums refine the crude public tools of all dull white blues bands into something awesome in its very insensitive grossness, like a Cecil B. DeMille epic† (â€Å"Review of Led Zeppelin† n. p. ). Rather than understanding the mechanics of the effect, or perhaps understanding but still not won over, critics found it easier to interpret the means Page used to achieve it. As it employed â€Å"inflated† or â€Å"excessive† means to achieve dynamic contrasts, Led Zeppelin’s music was often accused of being cartoon-like, the perfect intellectual nourishment for its young and uninformed audience (Cole and Trubo 49-50). According to Rockwell, â€Å"As it evolved from 1968 onward, Led Zeppelin became the first and greatest mass audience band built up through FM radio-play and live concerts rather than AM singles† (â€Å"Led Zeppelin and the Alchemy† 24). Christgau compliments this view, by observing that the band never â€Å"woodshedded† like Cream, that it had a mass audience from the start (n. p. ). Both facts reflected the changing structure of the music industry in the late-sixties and early-seventies. Traditionally, rock bands started at the ground floor. They toured in small venues and received local radio airplay, which they would then parlay into a local or regional base of support. Despite its commercial success, Led Zeppelin positioned itself as a band that lay outside the mainstream. Though it had a mass audience, the band’s fans felt as if they were members of a secret society. When their early albums were criticized by reviews in the Rolling Stone and other national music publications, they recoiled from contact with the music press. Unlike other bands, its members were rarely in the pages of music magazines (Lewis). Consistent with contractual stipulations, Led Zeppelin exercised absolute control over their artistic direction. They became known as a band that wouldn’t take shit from anyone. Tales of their contrariness have taken on mythic proportions. At a time when other popular bands were required to cut singles or engage in more subtle or obvious forms of merchandising, they were one of the few that had the power to abstain from these sordid affairs (Yorke 114-5). Despite many lucrative offers, the band refused to perform on television. These stories lent the band a distinctive mystique. Rockwell comments, â€Å"Led Zeppelin is a band that is almost a ritual among teen-agers and blissfully alien to the over-21-year-olds† (24). This combination of mass appeal and cult-like allegiance is an unusual and interesting phenomenon. In structure if not in meaning, the group was the musical equivalent of the Volkswagen Beetle. Even today, its status as a â€Å"people’s band† remains largely uncontested (Cole and Trubo 102). The hullabaloo surrounding the release of Led Zeppelin’s fourth album provides insight into how the band’s unique status was constructed. In 1971 it released its fourth album. Its jacket contained no words that would identify it as a Led Zeppelin album to â€Å"outsiders. † Inside, one found four â€Å"runes† at the top of the liner sleeve (Yorke 133). When asked to explain the rationale for this unorthodox packaging, Page replied, â€Å"We decided that on the fourth album we would deliberately downplay the group name and there wouldn’t be any information on the outer jacket. Names, titles, and things like that do not mean a thing. †¦ What matters is our music. We said we just wanted to rely purely on music†( quoted in Davis 141-142). Within the industry, confusion ensued over what to call the album. Critics labeled it â€Å"the fourth album,† or referred to it by catalog number, â€Å"Atlantic SD 7208,† while fans often referred to it as â€Å"Zoso,† a rough transliteration of the first rune. One does not have to challenge the sincerity of Mr. Page’s remarks to see how a belief that only music mattered, and that â€Å"Names, titles and things† had no relevance, might also function as an effective marketing tool. It played the game both ways: on the one hand, it affirmed the band’s distance from merchandising itself, while, on the other, it created an aura that drew suburban teens to record stores in droves (Cole and Trubo 73). Led Zeppelin toured North America every year from 1968 through 1973, returning in 1975 and 1977. The band had scheduled concert dates for 1980, although John Bonham’s untimely death halted their plans. The tours since 1973 were conducted with military-like precision. The band even went as far as leasing their own private jets to ferry them to and from shows (Yorke 142). The size of Led Zeppelin’s attendance and gate receipts were to become almost as legendary as its performances. In July 1973 the band broke the Beatles’ record for single concert paid attendance. The Beatles had drawn 55,000, with a $301,000 gross, to Shea Stadium in 1965. Yet that night 56,800 people paid $309,000 to see Led Zeppelin in Tampa, Florida (Robins 116). In 1977 the band played before 76,229 fans in Pontiac, Michigan, billed as the largest paid crowd for a single attraction in the history of rock. The band’s gross for the evening was $792,361, a record at that time (Swan Song Press Release). While its fans would proudly identify with the band’s â€Å"outsider† status, they also took a great deal of satisfaction in the band’s commercial success. This contradiction suggests that the rock ideology had mutated since the late-60, and that its oppositional stance had softened some, reflecting institutional changes that the genre and its audience had undergone during that time (Lewis). Plant and Page, around whom most of the show revolved, presented starkly different characters. On stage Plant was the front-man. He introduced the songs and chatted with the audience between them. The singer’s appeal was primarily to girls and young women. On stage he was, by turns, coquettish and phallic (Cole and Trubo 66-7). At one moment, he was a golden-curled, teeny-bop dream, provoking fantasies of castles and knights, at another, he was a groaning, pushing, back-door man, ready to break down the door to get what he wanted. Robins characterized his stage presence as, â€Å"Spirituality mixed with sexuality† (Robins 117). Unlike the singer, Page’s appeal was primarily to boys and young men. While the driving force behind the band, he almost never spoke to the audience. His is the silence of young boys, vulnerable and aloof. A waifish, Edwardian figure, Page’s guitar playing was accompanied by dramatic and grandiloquent gestures. On stage he often resembled a wizard marshaling the dark electronic forces at his disposal, an impression heightened by his reported dalliance with Satanism. He appeals to those who feel they have something important to say, but doubt their ability to say them (Davis). Led Zeppelin’s music always exceeded generic heavy metal boundaries. In the mid-seventies, however, these boundaries were eroding from developments within and without rock music. The stylistic diversity that marked its third and fourth albums was pushed even farther in later albums such as Houses of the Holy and Physical Graffiti. In each, the blues played a less prominent role, and the band’s lyrical concerns began to shift, in a generic sense, overlapping the terrain occupied by progressive groups such as Yes, King Crimson, and Emerson, Lake, and Palmer. In the mid- to late-seventies the distinctions between the audiences for heavy metal and progressive rock began to fragment (Weinstein 29). By the mid 70s, Led Zeppelin’s audience had become more varied. While still holding much of its traditional audience base, new groups such as Boston, Aerosmith, or Kansas, competed with the band for the allegiance of young listeners. By contrast, its music became part of the mainstream. In 1976, for example, the daughter of the president, Susan Ford, said on the Dick Cavett Show that Led Zeppelin was her favorite group. Not able to let its historical commitment to youth be outshone, the Democrats responded in kind. Speaking at the National Association of Record Manufacturers convention, Jimmy Carter â€Å"reminisced about listening to Led Zeppelin records during all-night sessions when he was governor of Georgia† (Davis 296-7). While anecdotal, both accounts suggest that Led Zeppelin had become something of an institution. As a signifier of youth, one needed only to refer to it to become cool. As is common in politics, however, the symbolism rang hollow. Although the undisputed ruler of America’s high school parking lots in the early seventies, by the dawn of the eighties Led Zeppelin was no longer able to unite different youth factions under its sonic umbrella. Instead, these same parking lots were the sites of tribal warfare, with one area given over to New Wave, another to Disco or dance music, and still another to Metal (Straw 101-3). Led Zeppelin was, arguably, the most commercially successful rock band of the seventies, all the while maintaining an aura that made its young audience feel as if it were part of a secret society. From their standpoint, fandom was an entry into a â€Å"community† the size of which has not been seen since. It was also, arguably, the most significant and influential rock band of the seventies. Emerging from the decomposition of 60s psychedelia, the band played a leading role in the development of the decade’s musical, performance, and business practices. Works Cited Bangs, Lester. Review of Led Zeppelin III, Atlantic SD 7201. Rolling Stone. (November 26,1970): NP. Bangs, Lester. â€Å"Mighty War Machine, Familiar as a heartbeat,† Creem. (February 1972) 62-63. Christgau, Robert. â€Å"A Power Plant† Newsday. (June 15,1972): NP. Cole, Richard and Richard Trubo. Stairway to Heaven: Led Zeppelin Uncensored. New York: Harper Collins, 1992. Davis, Stephen. Hammer of the Gods: The Led Zeppelin Saga. New York: Ballantine Books, 1985. Lewis, Dave. Led Zeppelin: A Celebration. Omnibus Press, 1991. Queenan, Joe. â€Å"Bookshelf: Sex V Drugs ‘n’ Rock ‘n’ Roll. † The Wall Street Journal. (August 28,1992): NP. Robins, Wayne. â€Å"Led Zep Zaps Kidz. † Village Voice. (February 3,1975): 116-118. Rockwell, John. â€Å"Led Zeppelin Excites Crowd at Garden But Somehow Delirium Wasn’t There. † New York Times. (February 4,1975): NP. Rockwell, John. â€Å"Led Zeppelin and the Alchemy of a Rock Group. † New York Times. (June 5, 1977): 19-24. Straw, Will. â€Å"Characterizing Rock Music Cultures: The Case of Heavy Metal,† in Frith, Simon and Andrew Goodwin (eds. ) On Record: Rock, Pop, and the Written Word. New York: Pantheon, 1990, pp. 97-110. Weinstein, Deena. Heavy Metal: A Cultural Sociology. New York: Lexington Books, 1991. Yorke, Ritchie. Led Zeppelin: The Definitive Biography. London: Virgin, 1993.

12 Angry Men by Talita E. Sigillo

Based on the movie  «12 angry men » In the movie  «12 angry men », one can explore a variety of fallacies and generalizations. Each juror except for one comes in with a verdict of  «Guilty », but by using critical thinking the reasons to support their claim are dismissed one by one. Except for Juror number three who is the last one to change his verdict. He disregards all critical reasoning and sticks to his initial claim using multiple fallacies to support it.He is clearly prejudiced towards the defendant no mater the evidence brought forward to him. Only at the end does he realize that all this time he was seeing his own son in the eyes of this boy, a son that had  «disrespected » the father. Him. Following are only some of the multiple fallacies juror number three used to support his claim. One of the very first fallacies juror number three uses is  «begging the question.  » This is when one states an opinion as though it is a well known fact. When he first ent ers the room he claims  «everyone knows he is guilty!! and when asked by the critical thinker to explain the reasons for his claim the juror answers:  «everything Says he is guilty » by using this reason he again is  «begging the question » and simultaneously uses  «Circular reasoning » since he restates his claim as though it is reason. Moreover when analyzing the two testimonies, the critical thinker finds ways to prove that there is a reasonable doubt in the two witnesses testimonies. Again juror number three uses more than one fallacy to claim that he has no reasonable doubt.It was brought to their attention that the woman who testified that she had seen the boy kill the father couldn’t actually see someone clearly. This claim was supported with the following reason and train of thought: The glimpse of the murder was seen through her bedroom window, the window of the moving train, across the street and through the victim’s apartment window.  «Could, who the woman saw commit the murder, be someone else »? Juror number three claimed that the  «woman testified in court » and also said  «The woman said she saw him » and finally ended with  «the woman saw it! After reasonable doubt to the testimony is applied, juror number three used the above quotes as his reasons to support his claim that it was the boy that the woman saw, concluding with evidence that do not follow through with his claim and thus being  «non sequitor ». Juror number three still had a valid reason to believe the boy had committed the murder since the man’s testimony was that he heard the boy shout out the phrase  «I’m going to kill you!  » to his father and that the old man who testified in court, saw the boy running down the stairs and that he heard the body fall.Through critical thought and analysing the evidence piece by piece, it was pointed out that, since the murder took place during the passing of a train, the old man coul d not have possibly heard the body fall and that it took him too long to cross his room and open the door for him to have seen the boy after committing the murder. Still juror number three voted guilty saying he had no reasonable doubt that  «the boy said ‘I’m going to kill you’ and he killed him » at this point he was using circular reasoning, restating his claim as a reason.It was at this point that the critical thinker decided to prove his point to juror number three, he provoked him so much to the point that he said  «I’m going to kill you!!  » to the other juror who provoked him, it was brought to his attention that a lot of them could have  «criminal tendencies » like the boy, but having them did not mean acting upon them. It was then that juror number three started loosing control. All the reasons he was using to mask the truth about why he was convicting the boy had been questioned leaving him with no logical warrants to support his cla im of guilty.When questioned again  «what proof do you have that the boy is guilty?  » he answers with a  «Red Herring » that he is  «entitled to his opinion » By the end of the movie his true premise behind the verdict of guilty was came to the surface. Juror number three had a son that had gotten in an argument with him and had stopped talking to him. This, according to the values in which the juror was raised, was disrespect and disrespect was inexcusable towards the father.It was obvious, that he prioritized respect to the father above everything else, when he said  «It doesn’t matter what his father did it’s his father and you can’t say ‘I’ll kill you’ to you father!  » This value that he prioritized along with the incident with his son was what had clouded his judgement and affected his point of view. Juror number three was therefore unable to critically look at the evidence presented since he was prejudiced towards the boy. For Juror number three the boy was guilty to begin with for disrespecting his father witch is this Jurors highest value.

In Much Ado about Nothing, what is the relationship between female Essay

In Much Ado about Nothing, what is the relationship between female power and language - Essay Example The researcher states that in the play â€Å"Much Ado about Nothing† Shakespeare uses language to bring out the message passed on to the audience. Power of language is used in the comedy. He uses wooing, destroys, and gives bad reputation then he restores honor. Shakespeare also teaches of the social life and structure. He informs us that there is a gap or conflict between women and men. They do not coexist peacefully at all. In the comedy men treat women differently. Women do not have a position in society. This is seen in the part where a man like Don John who deceives a prince in order to defame the honor of a woman. This indicates or shows the problems in the power status and structure of social co-existence. When the relationship of Beatrice and Benedick is put into consideration in â€Å"Much ado† one of the most crucial themes is around gender, roles according to gender and the dissimilarities between women and men. It is sarcastic that a low ranking member of th e society is the one who exposes the bad habit of Don John and his coconspirators (Wick 4). Don John is totally different from his fellow Don Pedro and Claudio, who are very protective male. When they are exposed to Leonato we are able to see the male pride of Conrad and Borachio. Shakespeare is able to bring to us the reality that those men of high status in society, and full of pride are the ones who treat women. Through Shakespeare, it is seen that most people who have bad behavior hide in the dark thinking that what they do can never be discovered. They abuse other people in the name of securing their pride. Shakespeare teaches the audience to criticize the language, role, and even the misuse of the Queen’s English. It is therefore leant that, those who bare false witness intentionally to hurt others end up being unhappy, and end up taking measure that are desperate in order to cover their naked bad behavior. This is a lesson that encourages people to be morally upright, and not use their powers to demean others. Another teaching is of being a hero. Beatrice still marries Claudio after wrongfully being accused of cheating. In another way this can be seen as she did not only do it though love, but to restore honor and faithfulness. This is considered as restoring her social status. Social status is also seen when Benedick has to kill Claudio in order to marry Beatrice. He accepts the challenge so as not to be considered a coward. Women are portrayed accurately in the play. There is the covering of stereotypes of women in the play. All the characters that are female have personalities that are widely varied. This helps to avoid the woman from being too humorous or patronizing. A range of different relationships are formed in the play. All this is due to a variety of social prominence and personalities. The base of this relationship is on sexes that are different. This is male and female. There are also other battles like relationships, conflict and de ceit. Women are seen to be present in all these themes. Many lines are interpreted in diverse ways that show meaning to reflect what is really happening in society. The female characters who are present in the play are Margaret, Hero, Ursula and Beatrice. All of them have personalities that are different. These personalities differ in one way or another. All of these characters that are female and they do not fit in the society of Shakepeare.They are therefore created to add hilarity, contrast or satire. One of them who does not fit and Shakespeare uses her to maximum is Beatrice. In the first scene of the play ,Beatrice is introduced as a woman who is very clever and humorous. She is known to gamble with words in order to prove her point. She is known to be very argumentative

Written Assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Written Assignment - Essay Example The implication of this is that the principles of war are not universal as every general can choose to develop their own depending how best their strategies work for them. Based on this, this essay will delve in to Sun Tzu statement that an army man tends to be the man in charge during a war and the fate of the people meaning that they fall under the mercy of the general in charge. In any war, consequences or effects are inevitable and the people tend to suffer more because things can never be normal again depending on the general that is commanding the war. In the case of the leadership of a country, the country may have a good performing economy or one that is unstable depending on the leadership styles and characteristics of the ruler (Roe 5). By applying and understanding this principle, this can be an effective way of exercising power by being familiar with the consequences of their decisions. The implication of this is that a nation may either have a failed democracy, unstable economy and vice versa depending on the type of leader that is in power. A nation’s prosperity may be uncertain as this tends to be the breaking or success moment for such a nation meaning that the type of leadership qualities that an individual may have can have a direct influence subjects. Peace in such a nation can prevail if the man in charge of a country has a clear plan of his intention to maximize on the nation’s resource by not creating enmity, as they carry out this activity. However, the leader chooses to be selfish and inconsiderate to the subjects in a country then this is likely to experience hostility, which can influence the war. Therefore, a leader can use this principle to their advantage, but also making sure their interests prevail with the least amount of force and no enemies created in the process. Nevertheless, the army men can never be in charge in a country because they also take orders

The advantages of online shopping Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The advantages of online shopping - Essay Example With the growth of online shopping, emerge several market footprint coverage opportunities for stores that can cater for offshore demand and services requirements appropriately. That point illustrates one of the benefits of online shopping that is; it saves time. With online shopping the buyer doesn’t need to physically go to the store to buy the product. He simply loggin or go to the website of the company whose product/service he wishes to buy, make an order, pay and the service will be acquired or delivered in case of a product. This saves time that the buyer might have used to go to the store. Another advantage of online shopping is that it very convenient. That is, who does not want to go to the store, make that long queue before being served? Most consumers prefer buying at their convenient time and place. In fact, many consumers would rather pay more but get a convenient service provided the service meets their demands. Online shopping is a global concept that is taking over the contemporary business environment. Online retailing corporations such as Amazon.com, Alibaba, eBay and many more are clear demonstrations of how online shopping is taking over the global business environment. Most consumers prefer online shopping to physical shopping because it gives them the opportunity to access varied varieties of products. At his convenient time or schedule, a consumer is able to access various sites that have the product he is looking for, compare prices and quality, comparing terms and conditions before making the decision on which one to buy. In fact most online stores emphasizes on convenience. It is only online shopping that gives the consumer the advantage of comparison shopping with just a click on the internet. Online shopping is comparatively cheap. That is, instead of fuelling his/her car or taking a walk to the store, a consumer simply needs some internet bundles to access the product he/she is looking.

The research of state-level society Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

The of state-level society - Research Paper Example In this light, there have evolved several theories trying to explain the origin of the state from several historians and scholars. Some of these theories give unsatisfactory records of events, while others have been unanimously accepted by different people as the sources of a satisfactory explanation of the origin of the state. There are different scholars who have put their efforts to research and come up with the theories to explain the origin of the state. There are different models that these scholars have put in place to explain the foundations of their researches. Given the fact that every scholar must validate their researches to make their theoretical models products of the intellectual environment in which they live, there are assumptions that must accompany each theory. The main aim of this paper is to discuss and analyze two theories that explain the origin of the state. Each theory will showcase the model used in it, the assumptions and the evidence of archeology and history of civilization. Many classical writers like Aristotle considered the state to be natural. Therefore, it did not require any explanation to its origin (Carneiro, The Evolution of Horticultural Systems in Native South America: Causes and Consequences 47-67). However, during the age of exploration, Europeans were made aware of the fact that people lived not in states, but in villages or tribes. This factor made the state look less natural; therefore, more explanation were required to shade light on the origin of the state. Amongst the many theories of the state origin that have been proposed, only few are normally considered and referred to in scholarly use. There are, for example, those theories with racial attachments, which have thoroughly been discredited. The belief that the state is an expression of the ‘genius of people, or that it came about through historical accident, are rejected, and theories with such basis are disregarded (Lanning 59).

Project Management - planning, conduct, administering, and closing Essay

Project Management - planning, conduct, administering, and closing supply chains [sap5] - Essay Example There are companies that successfully manage internal aspects of their supply chain plan. However, external issues create a greater problem, specifically for  small businesses (Kouvelis, Chambers and Wang, 2006). Small firms have smaller network of  suppliers by building relationships and increasing efficiency hence lowering risk. Ordinarily, certain industries experience higher  supply chain  risks. For instance, pharmaceutical and food companies have strong foundation and understanding of strategy for safeguarding against supply chain problems and interruptions. Effective strategies on supply chain management improve aspects of business like operations and customer service. Code of Conduct Responsibility for people and the environment affects supply chain operations. The role of supply chain includes verifying compliance, making demands, and creating long-term relationships with suppliers (Tyndall, 2004). Moreover, it has to support efforts for sustainable improvements. Cod e of Conduct forms the fundamentals of efforts for improving work environment and working conditions for manufactured products. The code comprises demands pertaining environmental impacts and human rights targeting operations, suppliers and manufacturers. The Code of conduct requirements are derived from the Rights of the Child and the UN Declaration on Human Rights. All manufacturers and suppliers should ratify the Code of Conduct so as to be part of the supply chain. The responsibility of Suppliers is in ensuring that their own manufacturers and suppliers adhere to the Code (Kouvelis, Chambers and Wang, 2006). Manufacturers and Suppliers who cannot or will not sign the Code or live up to organizational needs may not be allowed business. The Code requirements include prohibition of child or forced labour, non discrimination based on personal characteristics or beliefs. Workplace health and safety should be prioritized alongside safe and correct handling of waste and hazardous subst ances. Ultimately, the working conditions must be acceptable. Administering Supply Chain Administering supply chain requires performance of cost-to-serve analysis and regular demand. Fundamentals of segmentation are based on profitability of customers, products and demand dynamics. This analysis gives the required information meant to tailor supply chain policies and service concessions meant to raise the overall profitability of the portfolio. The change in the dynamics of demand and profitability in today's quickly changing business landscape has institutionalized a standard cadence. In the recent past, demand has been regarded as a single requirement to reactions of supply chain. Today, demand signals emanates from forecasts, orders, and safety stock coming from different channels such as Web, retail, enterprise and distributors (Kouvelis, Chambers and Wang, 2006). Furthermore, demand signals originate from different customer types where large, highly profitably customers are com pared to small, unprofitable customers. Besides, diverse customers have different fulfilling relationships depending on the service needed, the customer volume and profitability, and customer support channels. One of the problems facing supply chain managers is the dynamics of supply chain cost structures. There is a greater fluctuation on fuel costs, labor costs, and currency exchange rates for low-cost countries. Profitable sourcing strategies will change to

How to prepare for final exams Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

How to prepare for final exams - Essay Example The schedule should allocate sufficient time to study for each of his or her exam subjects. The candidate should keep up with the course work and ensure that he or she attends the classes regularly in order to track all the readings and study notes consistently. One must be sure to allow enough time for quality sleep and strenuous physical exercises. The exam preparation stage is achievable by purchasing a calendar and outlining a daily schedule of the study topics. A self-mini review is essential after completing a topic. It helps in self-evaluation and assessment. The stage is fully dependent on self-discipline and demands a maximum discipline towards observing and following a schedule to the latter. The second step in the final exam preparation is to identify difficulty areas per subject. The step enables the student to understand extensively and take notes summary on the particular areas of technicality (Smiderle and Green 2011). At this step, the student should make portable flashcards that enable him, or her review the area of technicality on a regular basis. The candidate should consult the professors on areas that he or she does not comprehend in order to receive guidance and teaching adequately. The third step in final exam preparation is to revise the previous tests done by the candidate and other final exam past papers completed in the previous years. The papers are good resources and give the candidate confidence of facing a final exam having mastered the trend and nature of the exams. The candidate should not cram the questions, instead should synthesize and understand the contents of the study areas completely. The candidate should skim and scan over all the notes in order to remind him, or her about contents previously taught. That gives the candidate an idea of the contents of the subjects under study. Choosing a serene and convenient venue for study is a fundamental consideration that a candidate should

Development, impacts, implications of a contemporary political movment Essay

Development, impacts, implications of a contemporary political movment for change (Environmentalism) - Essay Example The beginnings of an environmental crisis which looms large over the world can perhaps be traced to the Industrial Revolution in Europe which led to natural resources being used, often indiscriminately, for the purpose of scientific progress (Reynolds, A Brief History of Environmentalism, n.dd). At a parallel level, European colonies in Asia, Africa and Latin America were also subjected to much ecological damage for industrial growth. Though Henry David Thoreau pioneered environmentalist thinking in the USA, it was John Muir who laid the foundation of the Sierra Club in 1892 through which the government received ample financial aid for it to undertake wilderness conservation measures (Reynolds, n.d.). The emergence of environmental activists such as Wangari Mathai from Kenya shows that environmental concerns cannot be divorced from an engagement with the imbalances of power engendered by colonialism. In contemporary times ecocriticism has become an integral part of most academic disc iplines. It has been particularly influential in the field of postcolonial studies where scholars have found a close connection between the discursive and economic power wielded by the West and the environmental damage inflicted by Western nations upon the nations of the Third World. The first breakthrough in American environmentalism came with Rachel Carson’s work Silent Spring (1962) which spoke of the impact of dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), a commonly used pesticide on the environment. The work created immediate controversies and numerous American industrialists clamoured for its ban, accusing the author of baseless indictments. However, the work caused enough stir for President John F Kennedy to order a thorough investigation into its claims. The research revealed the hugely detrimental effect that DDT had not merely upon the physical environment but also on human health since it was commonly used as an agricultural pesticide. Following this the use of DDT was ba nned in the USA (Lear x-xi). This is an important episode in the history of environmentalism for it fortified American environmentalist movement besides proving the efficacy of protest movements led by seemingly politically disempowered individuals against multinational conglomerates. It is a sad fact that even today, several countries continue to use DDT and many such pesticides. These continue to affect the lives of millions of people and their health even today. The reasons for this can be traced to the lobbying power of the corporate firms that produce these pesticides and the lack of civic action on the part of the citizens of these nations. This can be remedied to an extent through the spread of awareness of environmental issues. In short, the issue of environmentalism needs to extend its reach to these nations in order for it to be an effective tool. In the 1970s began the era of international cooperation on the subject of ecological conservation, the manifestation of which w as the Earth Summits summoned by the United Nations. The first among these was held in Stockholm in 1972 and was titled â€Å"UN Conference on the Human Environment, Stockholm† (â€Å"Earth Summit,† The United Nations Official Website n.p.). These forums of international debate and discussion have laid bare not merely the urgent need to incorporate the

International Human Rights Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

International Human Rights - Essay Example The corrective conventions- these expedient tools focused on the mitigation of particular social problems which undermined the position of women in the society. It includes efforts to prohibit prostitution and sale of women for slavery or forced labor, child labor, and other forms of personal abuses. The elimination of discrimination conventions- these are the recent and the foremost form of tools used to provide protection to women against any sort of discrimination extended towards them due to their gender. The UN developed the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women 1979 in order to place non-discriminatory rules in place. Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women 1979 (CEDAW) Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women is an internationally acceptable UN convention, which aims to demolish the practice of discriminating women in all sectors of life, be it employment, justice seeking, provision of public services, healthcare, education, domestic relations, political participation etc. By the 11th August 2006, the Convention had a massive following and support from around the globe, which was substantiated by the fact that 98 countries signed the convention and it was ratified or acceded to by 184 nations worldwide (Blanchfield, 2006). The United Nations claimed that this convention was an expedient tool of ensuring non-discrimination and that it was a valuable mechanism for the extension of human rights to woman who are subjected to tyranny and oppression around the globe and yet not provided with due rights before the law. Therefore, it forces the member states to implement certain measures which would ensure that women receive their due rights and freedom. Its popular acceptance is also substantiated by the fact that 90% of United Nations member states have ratified it. It cannot be denied that CEDAW is a move towards more equality between men and women, howev er the enactment of laws and policies does not ensure that the aim would be achieved, since it is the effectiveness based on the practicality of the convention and its acceptance in real life and not just on mere paper which determines its success or failure. The Effectiveness of CEDAW The effectiveness of the measures carried out under CEDAW vary in accordance with certain factors such as the development level of a nation, the political ideology in place, the commonly practiced religion and cultural relativism prevalent in the region etc. It has been observed by institutions such as Amnesty International Organization, which carry out surveys and research for social welfare, that this convention has worked for the betterment of women around the globe, but there still remain obstacles pertaining to the above mentioned factors which hinder the complete implementation of these measures, resulting in the continuous and ever increasing subordination of women in different spheres of the w orld (Amnesty Internatio

Social Capital and how it Influences Migration Essay Example for Free

Social Capital and how it Influences Migration Essay Several scholars have given varying definitions of the term social capital. Social capital is a term used to refer to: â€Å"features of social organization such as networks, norms and social trust that facilitate coordination and cooperation for mutual benefit† (Putman 67). Fukuyama, another scholar, refers to it as an instantiated norm that is informal in nature and promotes cooperation among the members (1). Among the various definitions suggested by different scholars, the key notion they all agree to; is that social capital can only be present within relationships (Fukuyama 1). In these relationships, co-operation is facilitated by shared norms and understanding among the individuals involved for mutual benefit. Unlike human capital that is attributed to an individual, the whole concept of social capital involves social connectedness, neighborliness, civic involvement, trust, reciprocity and norms of co-operation. Researchers have been able to prove individuals with high levels of social capital tend to have higher educational achievements, better health, better jobs and less criminal activities. Social capital is a result of co-operation among individuals who share a similar status within the situation, have common objectives and are guided by particular customs. Certain aspects of the social structure facilitate social capital, aspects such as common historical backgrounds and shared religion. Repeated community interactions lead to the rising of numerous co-operative norms that set the basis for spontaneous generation of social capital. The shared norms and beliefs that persons ought to or ought not to act in a certain way determine the extent to which individuals interacts, for example vacating a seat for an expectant woman on the bus. From time to time, people experience social needs that they have to satisfy. Socially, an individual is helpless if left all by himself and must interact wi th other in order to generate social capital to satisfy his needs. Human needs that are non-social in nature and can be satisfied without assistance from other individuals are very few making the satisfaction of both social and non-social products of a single process. Fukuyama asserts that: shared historical experience can shape informal norms and produce social capital (16). Individuals with similar historic backgrounds tend to share a set of norms that in turn lead to co-operation amongst themselves. Religion is a significant contributor to the larger social capital theory by setting some common grounds for co-ordination among its followers. Over the years, religious institutions have been governed by a set of regulations that its members have to adhere to giving rise to certain norms among the community of members. Sometimes social capital is generated for specific purposes; Individuals may create social networks that will enable him/her achieve a specific objective. Reciprocity norms results in the generation of social capital as it creates in an individual the need and willingness to help others. The desire for better living has also facilitated the generation of social capital where Individuals can acquire and accumulate other forms of capital through social capital. Both formal and informal networks form the basis of social capital concept. Alberto Douglas confirm that there has been the emergence of social structures based on kinship or friendship. Those related socially to migrants; current migrants or former migrants can access social capital significantly increasing their likelihood of migration (Alberto, Douglas, et al1272). The hypothesis has been time and again invoked to give an insight to the concentration of particular types of migrants in certain areas and the magnitude of their migration. Migration is facilitated by Migrant Networks; interpersonal connections that link migrants, non-migrants, and former migrants to one another th rough shared community origin. (Alberto, Douglas, et al., 1262). These set of networks are as a result of the already generated social capital. International migration is further fueled by core families already settled in which out-migrants cohere and the established social institutions campaigning in favor of migration. This kind of a connection increase the chances of International migration since the cost and risk involved in the movement is substantially lowered. Chances of out-migration increase each time a relation relocates to a different location. â€Å"Over time migrant networks become self-sustaining as a result of the social capital that they provide to prospective migrants† (Alberto, Douglas, et al., 1286). This fact is commonly observed among siblings where the younger siblings are more likely to follow suit after the elder ones. The migrant families over time establish themselves first by building social networks among themselves and then with the rest of the local population as they accumulate experiences. The migrant grows to the point where it can sustain itself and continues to admit more migrants into its social relationship. This kind of setup is a social tie the makes it simple for the out-migrants to settle in as it provides a link between sending and receiving communities. Through social network with relatives or friends, the migrants can secure housing, jobs or even financial assistance. Complementary social roles and interpersonal relationships maintained by an informal set of expectations and prescribed behavior keep in bondage both migrants and non-migrants through social capital. This kind of social capital generates over time by virtue of being in a similar region under similar circumstances and not by the migratory process. Through such social ties, those left behind by the migrants can mitig ate the loneliness of having a loved one away from them. The migrants also draw upon these ties to share the often, not so favorable conditions of life in exile. The types of social capital people generate while relating to each other are very multidimensional in nature. Different network structures present a different social capital, the goal to be achieved being the determining factor. Social capital can be specific in nature when it is generated specifically to satisfy a given situation, i.e.; some kinds of ties are more important for the attainment of particular goals. This network is only instrumental in the achievement of the task. For example, sales managers sitting to strategize on the means to boost the sales of a new product through promotions. Close ties are often than not general social capital and are in most cases informal promoting the well-being of the individual members. Example, offering advice, spiritual support et. Cetera. References Alberto Palloni, Douglas S. Massey, Michael Spittel, Kristin Espinosa, Miguel Ceballos and Michael Spittel. â€Å"Social Capital and International Migration.†American Journal of Sociology. 106. 5 (2001): 1262-1298. PrinDouglas Massey, Rafael Alarcon, Jorge Durand, Humberto Gonzales. Return to Aztlan: The social Process of International Migration from Western Mexico. Berkeley: University of California press, 1987. Print.Francis Fukuyama. â€Å"Social Capital and Civil Society.†Conference on Second Generation. (1999): web 15 Nov. 2008. www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/seminar/1999/reforms/fukuyama.htmPettigrew, T. F. Annual Review of Psychology† Intergroup contact theory. 49.2 (1998):65-85. Print. Putnam, R. â€Å"America’s declining social capital Journal of Democracy† Bowling Alone.6.1 (1995): 65-78. Print. Source document

Influence Of Demographics On Leadership Styles

Influence Of Demographics On Leadership Styles Quantitative research methodology were applied in this study to identify leadership styles in current state Islamic Banking managers need to be successful in their position, This study also integrated quantitative methodology to explain current state Islamic Banking leaders in terms of their demographics and leadership styles. The primary purpose of this study was to identify and describe the leadership styles of current managers or leaders in Islamic Banking, in terms of their leadership styles and their demographics (autocratic, democratic, and laissez faire),( gender, age, Tenure) in describing current managers. Introduction Managers are people who do things right, while leaders are people who do the right thing. People who can influence the behaviors of others, Are able to influence without having to rely on force, are accepted by others as leaders, who exhibit the leadership practice Challenge the Process are not bound by the status quo, are open to innovation, and encourage risk-taking within the organization, Inspire a Shared Vision are able to look ahead and see what the organization can be while at the same time enlisting the efforts of others in the achieving the common goals of the organizational vision, By engaging in behaviors characteristic of the Enabling Others to Act practice transfer power to others in the culture of the organization, participate others in the decision making processes and ultimately build trust and mutual respect between each other. Leaders also Model the Way set examples by adhering to the same rules and expectations of others within the organization, also utilize the Encourage the Heart practice recognize the contributions of individuals and celebrate the accomplishments of others. This paper, therefore addressed the following specific objectives: 1. Does leadership styles matter? 2. To explain the influence of demographic variables (gender, age, Tenure) on the leadership styles. History In order to begin understanding the concept of leadership, we must be aware of the theories of leadership as a whole. (Yukl 2002) classified practical research and leadership theories into five approaches: the trait approach, the behavioral approach, the power-influence approach, the situational approach, and the integrative approach. Studies that have been conducted within these approaches to leadership have made distinct contributions to our understanding of what leadership is, and each approach continues to influence our thinking about leadership as a process (Nahavandi). Approaches The Trait Approach: leadership mentioned specific attributes of leaders such as individuality, motives, values, and skills (Yukl 2002). The basic statement that guided the trait leadership studies was that leaders possessed certain traits that other people did not possess. In real meaning, the trait approach assumed that leaders were born, not made. The Behavioral Approach: After the studies conducted using the trait approach failed to produce certain result, many researchers began using a behavioral approach to study leadership. Researchers began looking into what leaders actually did on the job (Yukl 2002). According to Yukl, research conducted under the behavioral approach falls into one of two subcategories: how leaders benefit from their time and the typical pattern of actions, tasks, and functions of their jobs, and identifying effective leadership behavior. The Power-Influence Approach: According to (Yukl 2002), this type of approach to leadership involves the study of the influence that takes place between leaders and other people. Studies that have been conducted with this approach generally focused on leadership in terms of the amount of power possessed by a leader, the different types of power, and how power was exercised (Yukl 1989). The Situational Approach: The situational approach mentioned the importance of appropriate factors in the study of leadership. (Yukl 1989, 2002) identified the following contextual factors: the leaders authority and maturity, and the units who can perform leader tasks, the personality of the followers, the type of organization, and the nature of the exterior environment. The Integrative Approach: Researchers using the integrative approach to leadership consist of more than one type of leadership variable, such as trait, behavior, influence processes, and situational variables (Yukl 2002). (Bass 1990: 52-76) stressed the importance of including more than one type of leadership variable in research involving leaders and leadership when he stated, cognitive, behavioral, and interactional explanations are likely to be needed to account fully for leader-follower relations and outcomes from them. He further stated that leadership must be conceived in terms of the interaction of variables that are in constant flux. Leadership theories such as charismatic and transformational leadership are good examples of an integrative approach to leadership. These theories are broader in scope: they simultaneously involve leader traits, power, behavior, and situational variables (Yukl 1989: 270). Leadership Styles (Bass 1990) He talked about leadership as a procedure of interaction, between individuals and groups that includes a structured or restructured situation. Leadership can be explained as the ability of an individual to have power that focuses on how to establish directions by adapting forces (Go et al. 1996). From an organizational view, (Schermerhorn 1999) believed that most important is a process used to motivate and to influence others to work hard in order to achieve and Support organizational goals, while (Hersey et al. 2001) believed that leadership effect individuals behavior based on individuals and organizational goals. (Robbins 2001) defined leadership as the ability of an individual to affect the behavior of a group to achieve organizational goals. It is possible to conclude from these discussions that leadership is a group of phenomena, where by leaders are distinctive from their followers, and can influence individuals activities to achieve set goals in their organizations. Leadership style is defined as the pattern of behaviors that leaders display during their work with and through others (Hersey and Blanchard 1993). (Miller et al. 2002) view leadership style as the way of interactions between leaders and followers. It includes controlling, directing, definitely all techniques and methods used by leaders to motivate followers to follow their directions. According to (Kavanaugh and Ninemeier 2001), there are three factors that determine the type of leadership style: leaders characteristics, subordinates characteristics and the organization environment. More specifically, the personal background of leaders such as personality, knowledge, values, and experiences shapes their feelings about appropriate leadership that determine their specific leadership style; employees also have different personalities, backgrounds, expectations and experiences, for example, employees who are more knowledgeable and experienced may work well under a democratic leadership style, while employees with different experiences and expectations require a autocratic leadership style. Some factors in the organization environment such as organizational climate, organization values, composition of work group and type of work can also influence leadership style. However, leaders can adapt their leadership style to the perceived preferences of their subordinates (Wood 1994). Leadership styles can be classified depend on leaders power and behavior as autocratic, democratic, and laissez-faire, where styles are distinguished by the influence leaders have on subordinates (Mullins 1998) (Rollinson 2005). More specifically, power has been considered as: the potential of a process to influence people (Hersey et al. 2001); a part of the influence process at the middle of leadership (Northouse 2004); and the rights that allow individuals to take decisions about specific matters (Rollinson 2005). The influence of leadership will change depending on types of power used by a leader over their followers (Mullins 1998). Therefore, leaders will be more effective when they know and understand the appropriate usage of power (Hersey et al. 2001). According to (Kavanaugh and Ninemeier 2001) an autocratic style is embedded in leaders who have authority for decision making without sharing it with their subordinates, while a democratic style implies that leaders share their a uthority of decision making with employees, and finally a laissez-faire style exists where leaders give their employees least authority over decision making. Transformational and Transactional Leadership Styles (Burns 1978) talked about leadership styles as transactional and transformational leadership, these styles are at the opposite ends of the same scale. He mentioned that transactional leadership is a way on interactions between leaders and followers in which something of value was exchanged, such as rewards for performance, however, transformational leadership occurring when leaders and followers interacted in such a way to achieve a high level of motivation in both the leader and the follower are in the same road. (Bass 1985) mentioned that the leader should involve in both transactional and transformational leadership behaviors. Transformational leadership is not an alternative for transactional leadership, but rather tends to add to its effectiveness (Bass 1997). Bass mentioned that the transactional leader as individual who worked within the organizational culture of the group to know and explain the duties and tasks of followers to achieve the targeted objectives and outcomes. These outcomes were achieved when the leader negotiate with followers (Bass 1985). In other words, transactional leaders explain to followers what is required of them and then negotiate with them to see if they understood the requirements, either the promise of reward for good performance or the threat of punishment for bad performance (Bass 1990). (Bass 1985,1990) identified four characteristics of transactional leaders: contingent reward: This means when the followers stick to the order and achieved the requirements set by the leader, then the leader give the followers a bonus or reward for their performance. Active management by exception: In which the leaders monitor and control mistakes of followers and take actions to correct it. Passive management by exception: In which the leader only intervenes in a followers work if the requirements are not met. Finally, laissez-faire leadership in which the leader avoids responsibility and decision-making when performance and goals are not met. Laissez-faire leadership can actually be considered a non-leadership factor as it represents the absence of leadership (Northouse 2001). Bass characterized transformational leaders as persons who encourage followers to do more than they originally expected to maximize their original level of confidence towards accomplishing desired outcomes. Transformational leadership occurs when a leader: increase the level of understanding about the importance and value of desired outcomes, expands the wants and needs of followers, and gets followers to exceed their own self-interest for the sake of the group (Bass 1985). (Bass 1990) identified four characteristics of transformational leaders: charisma in which the leader is able to provide followers with a mental picture, send out a logic mission, gain respect and trust, and inspire belief in followers, inspiration in which the leader provides examples and patterns for the follower through symbols and images, emotional appeals, and communicating high expectations, intellectual stimulation in which the leader stimulates followers to think in new ways, increase intelligence and wisdom, and encourage problem solving. Individualized consideration in which the leader provides a helpful and coaching environment such that each follower is treated as a valued individual. Relationship between Leadership Style and Leadership / Management Theory Some studies have mentioned the differences between management and leadership to the difference between transactional and transformational leadership. (Bennis and Nanus 1997) noted that management normally consists of a set of exchanges whereas the end result of leadership is empowerment, this results of exchange leads to a clear success of any individuals. From this standpoint, management can be viewed from tow perspectives; one is performed by transactional leaders while the other can be seen as those activities performed by transformational leaders. Management and leadership are different in functions, however, we cant separate management from leadership because we have an amount of overlap exists between the two. Any organizations need both effective management and leadership to reach the desired outcomes. The role of management can be compared to transactional leadership in which followers must meet the expectations of their leaders based on contracts and performance requirements. Under most situations, this may be an effective way. Influence of Demographics on Leadership Styles Numerous studies have been conducted in the field of leadership that has addressed the influence of selected demographic characteristics of individuals on their leadership style. Some studies have focused on the influence of the characteristics on the self-perceived leadership style of the individual, others have focused on the perceptions of followers related to an individuals leadership style and the influence of these characteristics, and still others have involved the perceptions of both the leaders and their followers. (Krishnan and Park 1998) noted that demographic characteristics do exert considerable influence on the leadership styles of top managers. (Hambrick and Mason 1984) proposed that demographic traits such as age, tenure in an organization, functional area background, educational background, and degree of formal management training are all important aspects of leadership that influence organizational success. Gender: Differences in leadership styles between men and women are one of the most well researched aspects of leadership. There are two major schools of thinking on gender differences and leadership, one that says there are distinct differences and the other that says there are no differences in the preferred leadership styles of men and women, several studies have been conducted to determine if male or female leaders are more transformational. (Eagly and Johnson 1990) found that women tend to use a more participative and comprehensive style while men tend to use a more order and controlling style. This result indicates that women use more transformational styles while men use more transactional styles. This conclusion is supported by other studies that found women more likely to use transformational leadership than men and that men were more likely to use transactional leadership as their primary style (Druskat 1994) ( Rosener 1990). Age: Several studies examining the relationship between age and leadership style have been conducted organizations other than Extension. (Vroom and Pahl 1971) Talked about the older and younger managers, the older managers tend to be more commitment than the younger managers, more careful about things and decision, not been acceptable of risks and challenges, otherwise, younger managers had less commitment and prefers to take risks on their actions. Tenure: Studies have been conducted that evaluate the relationship between an individuals leadership style and their tenure within an organization as well as their tenure in leadership positions. (Bantel and Jackson 1989) found that the more tenure of the top management team within the independent financial institutions they studied had; the more likely they were to resist innovation and organizational change. In real meaning, if managers had more tenure with in any organization, he tried to resist all Improvements can affects the whole company. Lebanese case The Role of Islamic Banking: Islamic banking was created to concern and develop on the communities that it serves. Islamic banking requires promoting the ideal of successful society and secure economy, based on the Islamic ideas of social equality, ethics and empathy. Islamic banking challenges the concept of disparity in offering banking services to people of various social standings and endeavor for social tuning between different classes. Yet, Islamic banking is a commercially applicable way of banking, which shows an alternative financial architecture on economic base. Evolution of Islamic Banking: Recent Islamic banking practices can be tracked hundreds of years back to the days of Prophet Mohamad. At that time, the Prophet performed as a mudarib or agent for his wife Khadiga who contingent him with a certain capital or goods for trade. Afterwards, the Prophet (PBUH) reimbursed the capital and the profit was shared between the two parties. Throughout the years, Muslim bankers and religious scholars struggled to devise financial instruments that integrate Islamic values with banking activities. Though profit was important, nevertheless, said instruments were needed to promote ethical and transparent financing, equitable distribution of wealth, and equity participation in the economy. In the late 50s, the first efforts to create an Islamic financing environment emerged in Pakistan. Nevertheless, modern Islamic banking first appeared, on a small scale, in Egypt early in the 60s. Following the oil boom in the 70s, Islamic banking flourished in the Arab world, and then spread out into the Middle East, Iran, and Southeast Asia. In the mid 70s, the worlds first full-fledged Islamic bank was established in UAE. Because of its ethical and moral principles, Islamic banking has gradually succeeded in achieving universal acceptance and attracted funds from both Muslims and non-Muslims alike. Currently, more than 300 Islamic banks are present on the five continents of the world, operating in more than 60 different countries such as the UK, the US, France, Germany, Denmark, Luxembourg, Switzerland, the Bahamas, Cyprus, Pakistan, India, and of course the Arab world. With an annual growth rate of 15% to 20%, Islamic banks assets exceeded $ 500 billion by end of 2007. Islamic banking is maintaining its impressive growth worldwide, yet at a faster pace than conventional banking, to become an actual globalization phenomenon. Islamic banking was introduced to the Lebanese market in the early 90s under a commercial banking license. All transactions strived to offer conventional banking products and services in compliance with Sharia based on two regulations. Fiduciary contracts law. Investment banking general directives. DATA COLLECTION The targeted area contains all managers who worked at Islamic banking; This study used one mechanism to collect data from one matched sampling frames in Islamic banking. Using leadership styles mechanism for managers. The leadership styles questionnaire was adapted from the leadership styles survey originally consisting of 18 statements This questionnaire is designed to measure three common styles of leadership: authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire, A five points scale was used in the instruments, where (1) equals strongly disagree, and (5) equals strongly agree. The questionnaires were handed over to the HR departments who in turn distributed 160 leadership styles questionnaires to the managers. From the respondents returned 110 out of 160, usable survey in this study was 110 questionnaires for data analysis. Also examine the Demographic characteristics of the participants on leader ship styles: One hundred and ten managers participated in this study. One hundred were males and the others were females. Most participants (n=78) were aged between 26- 35 years. The majority of participants (n=96) were degree holders. The highest number of participants (n=40) had 2-4 years of service. The majority of participants (62) were middle managers Analysis discussion Internal consistency tests were conducted on instrument. The results indicated an overall percentage of leadership styles. The details of these results are shown in Table: Internal consistency of the instrument % Autocratic style 36 Democratic style 63 Laissez -faire style 11 According to (White and Lippitt), democratic leader possesses low goals and means control, and utilizes high motivation of group procedures. Leadership style refers to a way of behavior used by managers and leaders across a wide range of managerial situations. These styles that are largely responsible for creating the organizational environment in which team members are expected to perform. Islamic Banking shows that the most effective leaders use a wide range of styles, adapting readily to the needs of particular situations and accurately choosing the right styles for the moment. I did find that a democratic leadership style was the most popular and successful of the three types. However, there was little suggestion with democratic leaders achieved that increases productivity or superior behavior among their members. I do caution with laissez-faire leaders to remain aware of the risk that require of structure can actually be troublemaking. In this study, managers showed different leadership styles preferences based on their demographic profiles (age, gender, and education), tenure and organizational position. This study showed that males, older managers, degree holders, experienced managers, and middle managers had a higher preference toward democratic leadership styles than other styles based on leadership styles questioner above. These findings are consistent with some previous findings such as those by Yousef (1998) who found that managers age, education, and experience had a relationship with their leadership style. Oshagbemi and Gill (2004) indicated differences among leadership styles based on hierarchal level. On the other hand, this study also disagrees with previous work such as Yousef (1998) who showed that managers gender and tenure did not have a relationship with their leadership style. Rad and Yarmohammadin (2006) found no link with demographic profiles other than experience. The current study, therefore, concludes that all leadership styles exist in Islamic banking, but that the democratic style was the prevalent leadership styles. Recommendations Conclusion As with any academic study, there are limitations that limit the generalizability of this study. The first limitation that must be considered is related to the nature of the Bank being studied. Because this study will be conducted within the Islamic Bank State Research, Education, which is a unique Bank in terms of its structure and function, the findings, will not be generalizable to other organizations. The study will even so contribute useful information and recommendations for researchers. Based upon the findings and conclusions of this study, the following recommendations were made: Understanding leadership style helps to classify strengths and weaknesses. You can be positive and more successful as a leader by strategically using strengths and focusing on weaker points. Leadership style defines standards and perspective, and being aware of it will support your communication with other followers. As the saying goes, knowledge is a strong weapon and power tool. You can give power to yourself and move forward in job or importance by increase this knowledge. In this study, gender had no effect on overall leadership styles, perceived proficiency in the leadership styles areas. Based on this finding, gender should not be a basis of discrimination when hiring Islamic bank leaders. The study found that there were also significant differences in leadership style due to managers demographic characteristics, and that the democratic leadership style was preferred among managers, I suggest that most successful leaders are able to adjust their behavior as circumstances dictate to effect positive outcomes. Finally, I recommend that Islamic bank leaders remain focused on addressing concerns within their control, such as implementing best practices, promoting , organized and unified team, determining specific roles and responsibilities for members, adhering to the agreed upon decision-making process, and regularly assessing fees.

1 Corinthians 13 What Is Love Essay

The Excellence of Love (1 Corinthians 13)1 If I speak with the tongues of men and of angels, but do not have love, I have become a noisy gong or a clanging cymbal. 2If I have the gift of prophecy, and know all mysteries and all knowledge; and if I have all faith, so as to remove mountains, but do not have love, I am nothing. 3 And if I give all my possessions to feed the poor, and if I surrender my body to be burned, but do not have love, it profits me nothing. 4 Love is patient, love is kind and is not jealous; love does not brag and is not arrogant, 5 does not act unbecomingly; it does not seek its own, is not provoked, does not take into account a wrong suffered, 6 does not rejoice in unrighteousness, but rejoices with the truth; 7 bears all things, believes all things, hopes all things, endures all things. 8 Love never fails; but if there are gifts of prophecy, they will be done away; if there are tongues, they will cease; if there is knowledge, it will be done away. 9 For we know in part and we prophesy in part; 10 but when the perfect comes, the partial will be done away. 11 When I was a child, I used to speak like a child, think like a child, reason like a child; when I became a man, I did away with childish things. 12 For now we see in a mirror dimly, but then face to face; now I know in part, but then I will know fully just as I also have been fully known. 13 But now faith, hope, love, abide these three; but the greatest of these is love.

The Story Of Sweetheart Of The Song Of Tra Bong: The Use Of Setting :: essays research papers

The Story of Sweetheart of the Song of Tra Bong: The Use of Setting Where does the story of Sweetheart of the Song Tra Bong take place? Upon reading the story, one would first assume that it takes place in Vietnam. Upon further examination, however, it becomes quite evident that it really takes place inside Rat Kiley's head. This isn't to declare the story false; instead, one should examine the influence and literary freedom that Rat flexes upon the truth. "For Rat Kiley†¦ facts were formed by sensation, not the other way around." (101) The story occurs in two separate but equally chaotic places: Vietnam, and Rat's head. The story intertwines between the two settings, and in order to completely grasp the idea behind them, one must first recognize, then separate and analyze the two settings. Upon the first reading of this work, the reader finds himself dropping into the story of a seemingly misplaced girl in Vietnam. The role of Rat Kiley seems somewhat minor and irrelevant. Upon the second and third times through, however, his role as the storyteller stands out. It becomes more evident that he holds Mary Anne with the highest regard. He romanticizes her relationship with the war. He is so amazed with the fact that a girl can be seduced by the lure of the wilderness that he begins to talk about her with the listeners as if she were the attractive girl from school that everyone knows but nobody dates. " 'You know†¦I loved her. Mary Anne made you think about those girls back home, how clean and innocent they all are.' " (123) Rat is pushing his views upon the listener. He is shaping how the story is seen. The reader sees "triple- canopied jungle, mountains unfolding into higher mountains, ravines and gorges and fast-moving rivers and waterfalls and exotic butterflies and steep cliffs and smoky little hamlets and great valleys of bamboo and elephant grass." (103) The actual reality of the situation is added by the narrator, as extrapolated from Rat: that they were in an almost completely indefensible situation. Had somebody cared enough to take control of the little base, there would be no resistance. Rat wanted to let the reader know his opinion on the citizens of the Viet Cong, how he wants the listener to think of them. "Mary Anne asked, 'They're human beings, aren't they? Like everybody else?' Fossie nodded. He loved her." (107) Rat lets us know that he thinks the VC are less then human. Why did Fossie nod, in Rat's opinion? Not because he thought Fossie felt she was The Story Of Sweetheart Of The Song Of Tra Bong: The Use Of Setting :: essays research papers The Story of Sweetheart of the Song of Tra Bong: The Use of Setting Where does the story of Sweetheart of the Song Tra Bong take place? Upon reading the story, one would first assume that it takes place in Vietnam. Upon further examination, however, it becomes quite evident that it really takes place inside Rat Kiley's head. This isn't to declare the story false; instead, one should examine the influence and literary freedom that Rat flexes upon the truth. "For Rat Kiley†¦ facts were formed by sensation, not the other way around." (101) The story occurs in two separate but equally chaotic places: Vietnam, and Rat's head. The story intertwines between the two settings, and in order to completely grasp the idea behind them, one must first recognize, then separate and analyze the two settings. Upon the first reading of this work, the reader finds himself dropping into the story of a seemingly misplaced girl in Vietnam. The role of Rat Kiley seems somewhat minor and irrelevant. Upon the second and third times through, however, his role as the storyteller stands out. It becomes more evident that he holds Mary Anne with the highest regard. He romanticizes her relationship with the war. He is so amazed with the fact that a girl can be seduced by the lure of the wilderness that he begins to talk about her with the listeners as if she were the attractive girl from school that everyone knows but nobody dates. " 'You know†¦I loved her. Mary Anne made you think about those girls back home, how clean and innocent they all are.' " (123) Rat is pushing his views upon the listener. He is shaping how the story is seen. The reader sees "triple- canopied jungle, mountains unfolding into higher mountains, ravines and gorges and fast-moving rivers and waterfalls and exotic butterflies and steep cliffs and smoky little hamlets and great valleys of bamboo and elephant grass." (103) The actual reality of the situation is added by the narrator, as extrapolated from Rat: that they were in an almost completely indefensible situation. Had somebody cared enough to take control of the little base, there would be no resistance. Rat wanted to let the reader know his opinion on the citizens of the Viet Cong, how he wants the listener to think of them. "Mary Anne asked, 'They're human beings, aren't they? Like everybody else?' Fossie nodded. He loved her." (107) Rat lets us know that he thinks the VC are less then human. Why did Fossie nod, in Rat's opinion? Not because he thought Fossie felt she was

Terrorism and Forces of Change :: Essays Papers

Terrorism and Forces of Change For millennia, the globe has throbbed with human loss due to acts and motivations of terrorism. Today, in the front hall of Buntrock Commons, a mural hangs above the door. Within the last 20 years, international terrorism has escalated to fantastically catastrophic proportions. Today, we look with wider eyes upon the replica of Pablo Picasso’s Guernica. One year ago, terrorists pulled our country into the reality of the world with a horrific act of violence. Grim and gripping, Guernica is now before us. What forces have changed in our world to bring this 75-year-old Spanish mural to hang in our hall with renewed significance? We have finally recognized international terrorism as part of our country’s reality. We are now forced to account for desperate acts of terrorism in real, personal terms. According to Hughes, there exist roughly nine forces of change in the political world today. As outlined in Continuity and Change in World Politics: Competing Perspectives, each force offers some inference into the reality of intercontinental dynamics. Yet this framework of forces cannot be of use without establishing a simple understanding: Where there is dissatisfaction with life prompted by greed, injustice or other source within a minority, and a specific and ruthless will among the dissatisfied to seek violence as a means of change, there will be terrorism. Modern threats to our governments today are simply the escalation of this violent will across continental boarders. In accounting for terrorism, the truly relevant and crucial questions at hand are thus: how do we prevent horrific acts of violence mot ivated by social unrest and how do we administer and alleviate the unrest? Hughes does not offer a response, but does seek to describe our political world of today. The dynamics of political demographics, food sufficiency, the transition of our energy uses, and the reactions to human choices in our environment are forces that contribute to our current global system. No number of individual inquiries into singular forces will produce a profound understanding of international terrorism. It is only when these forces are viewed in conjunction with Hughes’ forces of Global Economic Reconstructing and the Rise and fall of the Global position that a context for international terrorism emerges. The rise to power of one country through the strengthening of its economy and the profitable produce of its population can hinder or even cripple another country, thus creating turbulence among groups of people.

Gender and sexuality Essay

Gender and sexuality has permeated the character of Latin American nations throughout history. Latin America has demonstrated examples of the manipulation of gender as a means of a nation’s government asserting its political and social control, and the history of the Cuban Revolution shows that Cuba is among such nations. Since its infancy in 1959 and through the 1990s, the Cuban revolutionary government has managed to achieve a well-documented history of oppressive practices that has made the Cuban government the subject of much worldwide criticism and scrutiny over the years. Among the root of this oppression is a commitment to political and social control along gender lines for a greater nationalistic cause. Not unlike other Latin American nations, gender roles as they are recognized in Cuba have been constructed and forcefully prescribed by the government. The citizens of the nation have been socialized to discern between masculine and feminine traits, as well understand why certain traits are desirable while others are not. These determinations have had far-reaching consequences in the cultural realm of Cuban society. Social circles are designed partly upon a person’s recognition of and adherence to specific gender roles. A part of the Cuban revolutionary government’s use of gender for political and social control is its attitude toward and relationship with male homosexuality. The systematic persecution of homosexuals in Cuba has been used by the state in an insular fashion against its citizens for the purpose of controlling them, but also as an outward political maneuver of serves to uphold national dignity and honor as part of a Cuban national identity that is to be recognized and respected throughout the rest of the world. In addition to this paper’s thesis being based on the Cuban revolutionary government’s use of gender and sexuality as a tool of political and social control, the notion of patriarchy is a theory that is central to this thesis. Part of Cuba’s national identity is the patriarchal nature of its government, which not only applies to the relationship between the state and its citizens, but also applies to the relationship between Cuba and other nations. Dominance and strength, two factors upon which patriarchy is based, are what Cuba stands to project to larger, more powerful nations as a symbol of an exalted position in the world. As discussed in the paper, Cuba’s patriarchal government uses its rejection of homosexuality outwardly as a tactic of resisting and rejecting the systems and ideals of nations that the Cuban Revolution finds itself to be fundamentally at odds with. Evidence of this can be found in works such as Ian Lumsden’s Machos, Maricones, and Gays: Cuba and Homosexuality. The arguments made in this paper are written around various primary documents that not only support the central thesis, but also serve as a base for extended discussion of certain elements that have contributed to a greater part of a nation’s history. One such element is the notion of gender roles and norms being defined and prescribed by the state, which in turn affects its society’s views. This includes the legal and penal mechanisms through which the prescriptions are upheld. Legal enforcement leads to a second element, which is nationalism as the motive for the state’s manipulation of gender and sexuality. This control of the Cuban people is part of a greater political agenda: ensuring the success of the Cuban Revolution. A part of this political maneuver is maintaining the honor of the nation and defending its worldwide image. A third and final element is the concept of cultures and governments undergoing change over a period of time. Such changes include the state’s gender-based ideas and prescriptions, as well as the catalysts for such change. These changes are ultimtately reflected in the attitudes of a nation’s people. The film â€Å"Fresa y Chocolate† is one of the primary sources that this paper is written around. Set in Cuba circa 1979, â€Å"Fresa y Chocolate† reflects the attitudes toward homosexuality that were the norm in Cuba during the first couple of decades of the Cuban revolution, and also depicts the government’s use of gender and sexuality to advance its own political agenda. What qualities make or do not make the revolutionary? What place does a homosexual have in the Cuban revolution? What is homosexuality supposed to mean to the communist youth? These are questions that â€Å"Fresa y Chocolate† raises and helps answer. The other primary documents that this paper is written around are the writings of controversial gay Cuban writer Reinaldo Arenas. This paper discusses some examples of the persecution that Arenas endured as a homosexual coming up during the Cuban Revolution. From physical attacks and censorship to arrests and imprisonment, Arenas symbolized to the Cuban revolutionary government the classic threat to the patriarchal state that the government feared and aimed to neutralize. Although writings from a persecuted homosexual in Cuba stand to possibly reflect certain biases, it is important to look at alternate points of view with the purpose of still supporting the basic arguments conveyed herein. For that reason, this paper will also discuss the works of writers such as Rafael L. Ramirez and Rafael Ocasio, who did not emerge from a situation similar to that of Arenas’s. Ocasio explains that Reinaldo Arenas initially expressed interest in the Cuban Revolution, having left home at the age of fifteen to become a guerilla fighter for Fidel Castro. (14) Arenas was rejected due to his young age and the fact that he had no firearms. His enthusiasm for supporting Castro eventually waned, however, and it was the sexual repression that Arenas encountered at his boarding school that began his discontent with the Castro regime. (17) Ocasio cites the reprisal that students faced if caught committing homosexual acts. In addition to expulsion, school officials also went as far as detailing the nature of student’s transgression in school records, thereby barring these homosexual students from other state-run schools. According to Ocasio, Arenas stated that arrest and incarceration could also result from certain instances of such activity. (17) This made Arenas aware of politically-related persecution of homosexuals as an adolescent. Systematic, state-sanctioned persecution of homosexuals is further exemplified by the nighttime roundups of homosexuals organized by Cuban police, a practice that traces back to 1961. The earliest documented case of this is known as the Night of the Three Ps (prostitutes, pimps, y pederasts). Gay playwright Virgilio Pinera was among those who were arrested. (Ocasio 24) These raids were purely politically-motivated, for as Salas explains, police targeted anything they found in these raids that appeared to be antisocial or non-conformist, including clothing or hairstyles deemed inappropriate. In support of this, Salas cites an instance in which a Young Communist League leader was arrested in one of the raids despite not being involved in any homosexual activity. Police targeted him because of his long hair, which was cut by authorities. The man was released once he confirmed his identity. (155) Homosexuals targeted in these raids were considered part of a greater antisocial element that the government sought to eliminate. Ocasio explains that while officials assigned prostitutes to schools where they could supposedly be rehabilitated, Castro stated that homosexuals would be barred from the possibility of having any influence in cultural life, schools, or the arts. (24) The aforementioned roundups of homosexuals organized by Cuban police had an affect on Cuba’s intellectual community, and was only one example of the Castro regime’s politically-inspired oppression. Various official statements were made by the Cuban government against homosexuals as part of a nationwide campaign promoting proper ethical policies that fostered acceptable revolutionary behavior. It was clear that writers such as Arenas and artists such as Pinera were not seen by the new regime as conducive to the political achievement to which the Cuban revolutionary government aspired. This is supported by Castro’s famous â€Å"Words to Intellectuals† speech, which Ocasio cites as the first official statement made by the Cuban revolutionary government that determined the boundaries within which revolutionary writers and artists were to operate: â€Å"What are the rights of writers and artists, revolutionary or not? In support of the Revolution, every right; against the Revolution, no rights. † Homosexual persecution rooted in the Cuban revolutionary cause is indicative of the revolutionary government’s concept of what it referred to as the New Man. In Social Control and Deviance in Cuba, author Luis Salas discusses the state’s concept of the New Man as Cuba’s ideal revolutionary, which allows no place for a homosexual in the revolution. (166) According to Salas, such a question was clearly answered by Fidel Castro with the following statement: â€Å"Nothing prevents a homosexual from professing revolutionary ideology and consequently, exhibiting a correct political position. In this case he should not be considered politically negative. And yet we would never come to believe that a homosexual could embody the conditions and requirements of conduct that would enable us to consider him a true revolutionary, a true Communist militant. A deviation of that nature clashes with the concept we have of what a militant Communist must be. † Salas contends that to the Cuban revolutionary, the New Man represents strength, honor, and â€Å"connotes maleness and virility. †(166) Conversely, homosexuality is considered to represent weakness, a classically feminine trait. The strength needed to be a true revolutionary is something that the Cuban revolutionary government saw in the uncorrupted youth of Cuba. The youth of the nation was regarded by the state as â€Å"one of the most treasured possessions of the nation† that was expected contribute to the success of the revolution, and as such, was to be protected from â€Å"a group viewed as seducers of small children. †(167) This aforementioned political attitude with regards to homosexuals in relation to the communist youth of Cuba was reflected in the film â€Å"Fresa y Chocolate. † In the film, David is a young communist university student who initially views an older homosexual artist named Diego as someone who is to be avoided and not to be trusted. David’s roommate Miguel is even more militant in his revolutionary, homophobic stance, and resorts to using David to spy on Diego due to his belief that Diego is a danger to the revolutionary cause and thus cannot be trusted. Although Diego eventually befriends David, there is a mutual understanding between both characters of the dangers that such a friendship can pose to a young communist like David, and David makes it clear to Diego that they are not to be seen together in public. This depiction is indicative of the state’s effort to socialize its youth towards anti-homosexual sentiment by portraying homosexuals as political obstacles and enemies of the state in order to influence public opinion and sway political action in the government’s favor. As Leiner explains, homosexuality played a role in Cuba’s prerevolutionary tourism economy, for the widespread solicitation of male prostitutes by gay tourists contributed to the economy. Furthermore, the stratification of prerevolutionary Cuba also lured many heterosexual working-class men into the underworld of homosexual prostitution in order to earn a living. According to Leiner, the homosexual bourgeoisie largely controlled this underworld as did American organized crime, which managed the lucrative, but seedy occupational sector based on prostitution, drugs, and gambling. Such an aspect of prerevolutionary Cuban history is indicative of fears present among state officials in revolutionary Cuba, who perceived homosexuality as fertile ground for the re-emergence of American imperialism, the bourgeoisie, and classism in Cuban society. This is consistent with Lumsden’s contention of revolutionary Cuba’s regulation of gender and sexuality in Cuba being a part of the state’s willingness to overcome underdevelopment and resist American efforts to prevent the revolution from succeeding. (xxi) According to Salas, gays were a remnant of capitalism in the eyes of the militant Cuban revolutionary. According to the Cuban government, the New Man was not motivated by the decadence and wanton lusts that characterize homosexuality, which the government believe was associated with the selfishness that marked capitalist societies. In a speech given on July 26, 1968, Fidel Castro characterized the revolution’s ideal New Man as possessing an altruistic and humanistic nature: â€Å"In a communist society, man will have succeeded in achieving just as much understanding, closeness, and brotherhood as he has on occasion achieved within the narrow circle of his own family. To live in a communist society is to live without selfishness, to live among the people, as if every one of our fellow citizens were really our dearest brother. † In addition to the idealism of Castro’s statement, there is also the character of the language behind his statement that is undoubtedly male as well as overwhelmingly exclusionary. The ideals promoted by Castro in the above excerpt can just as easily be prescribed to women for them to live by such ideals, but the â€Å"macho/socialist amalgam questioned whether male homosexuals could. †(Leiner 27) Leiner explains a study conducted by esteemed commentator Lourdes Casal, who analyzed the influence that the Cuban revolution had on Cuban literature. According to Leiner, Casal discovered a general disdain for homosexuals reflected in over 100 novels. Casal contended that the rejection of homosexuality was the rejection of femininity. Accusing a man of being a homosexual was to be considered an assault on that man’s masculinity, and was considered synonymous with deeming that man a female who is devoid of strength â€Å"and unworthy of holding power. â€Å"(23) Such a meaning prescribed to the title â€Å"homosexual† underscores the nature of the Cuban government’s patriarchal structure, in which power is directly associated with being a man both physically and sexually. Leiner also explains that in revolutionary Cuban society, the perception of homosexuality – and therefore, femininity – went beyond mere sexual preference. Physical weakness and lack of muscularity, a lack of interest in physical competition, the display of a quiet demeanor, or a gentle, nurturing or sensitive nature were enough to raise suspicion of homosexuality. According to Leiner, such qualities were perceived as weak and inferior, and therefore effeminate. The strong, abrasive, and competitive male was above suspicion of homosexuality. (22) The question of why homosexuals were perceived by the state as counter to the revolution remains partly unanswered. In addition to the Cuban government’s belief that homosexuals possessed undesirable qualities such as weakness, cowardice, and perversion, the state’s view of homosexuals as a danger to the institution that is the traditional family further compelled the state and the society it influenced to write homosexuals off as â€Å"antithetical to a socialist society. †(Leiner 25) Lesbian playwright Ana Maria Simo was jailed for four-and-a-half months in 1965 and also suffered shock treatment to â€Å"correct† her simply due to her associating with people who were suspected of being homosexual. She was not a lesbian at the time. She states that she and her friends were political individualists and anarchistic, and that is what bothered the government, not their being gay. (Ocasio 30) According to Leiner, lesbians were no cause of concern for the revolutionary government. Leiner states that Lourdes Casal found no mention, or even the vaguest hint of evidence of concern over lesbianism in either the pre- or post-revolutionary literary works that she analyzed. This is a manifestation of the Cuban government’s patriarchal structure in that the government’s complete absence of concern over the lesbianism in Cuba is indicative of the government’s â€Å"relegation of women as secondary, lesser ‘others. ‘†(Leiner 23) Unlike homosexuals, lesbians posed no threat to the Cuban revolutionary cause, for the revolution never looked to women for signs of strength or power upon which the government could rely in order to ensure the success of the revolution. However, lesbians, even those who displayed overly masculine qualities, were still considered women just as homosexual males were, and both were deemed unqualified for revolutionary status by the state. Standards of gender and sexuality were prescribed and legitimized by the revolutionary state, thus criminalizing homosexuality. The government’s enforcement of its prescriptions has been carried out via formal as well as informal means. A prime example of a formal method of this enforcement is penal legislation. Such legislation involving homosexuality can be found in two sections of the Cuban statutes. In one section of the statutes, legislation involves the relation between homosexuality and the state’s concept of social dangerousness. Article 73 of the Cuban Penal Code regulates social dangerousness, and cites behavior deemed antisocial as its target. In Cuba, homosexuality has been legally deemed antisocial. (Salas 151) Lumsden cites the use of the word antisocial as a code to describe displays of homosexuality deemed ostentatious. (83) According to Salas, anti-homosexual legislation was considered a preventive measure, for the display of so much as even an attitude that authorities perceived as antisocial justified police intervention. (Salas 153) These laws stem from government fears, such as the fear of the threat that homosexuality poses to the traditional family structure. There is also the government’s fear of homosexuality hindering the success of the revolution, of which the fear of homosexuals corrupting the nation’s youth is a part. (Salas 154) The latter fear can explain homosexual males receiving much harsher punishments for having sex with underage boys compared to the punishments that males faced for having sex with underage females. (Lumsden 82) The fact that laws pertaining to homosexuality are in a section of the Penal Code that pertains to violations against sexual development and sexual relations that are considered normal is indicative of the state’s perception of homosexuality as a condition that is contagious and leads to pedophilia. For this reason, Article 317 also includes the act of propositioning an adult for homosexual sex in its permanent barring of convicted sex offenders from the teaching profession and any other field in which such an adult stands to have authority or potential influence over children. (Lumsden 84) Aside from the Cuban revolutionary government’s fears related to the issue of homosexuality, the eagerness of some government officials to enforce anti-homosexual law is also indicative of their determination to remain above suspicion of being homosexual for their own fear of legal and social reprisal at the hands of the government. Examples of this are provided by Reinaldo Arenas in his highly acclaimed autobiography Before Night Falls, in which he discusses various sexual encounters he had with homosexual government officials in Cuba. Arenas cited an incident in which a police officer with whom he had just had sexual intercourse actually arrested Arenas â€Å"for being queer. † â€Å"Perhaps he thought that by being the active partner he had not done anything wrong,† Arenas stated. This statement by Arenas is a clear reference to the commonly held perception of the active, penetrating partner in a sexual act between two men not being a homosexual because his dominant position is considered a product of masculinity and power. This perception is diametrically opposed to the perception of the penetrated partner, for this partner assumes a role that is subordinate to the dominant penetrator, thus representing the role of a woman. In Arenas’s aforementioned discussion of his arrest, he stated that at the police station, the arresting officer attempted to explain his arresting Arenas by falsely accusing Arenas of groping him. However, Arenas managed to prove the officer’s involvement in the homosexual act by quickly admitting to the other officers that he still had the officer’s semen on his body, thus making the officer the subject of much surprise and scorn from his colleagues and work superiors. As part of his account of this incident, Arenas alluded to the revolutionary government’s belief that it is not possible for a homosexual male to possess the qualities that makes a true revolutionary. At the same time, Arenas also made a reference to the belief of a homosexual male being equivalent to a woman: â€Å"They ended up saying it was a shame that a member of the police force would engage in such acts, because I, after all, had my weakness, but for him, being a man, there was no excuse for getting involved with a queer. † Because he managed to achieve a position as a police officer in the Cuban revolutionary government, which included a convincing display of the masculine traits that the Cuban government believed were instrumental to the composition of a true revolutionary, the police officer was undoubtedly a â€Å"man† in the eyes of the state, whereas Arenas was not. The engendering of the passive and active partner in homosexual intercourse is not exclusive to Cuban revolutionary society, however. In What It Means to Be a Man, Casper and Ramirez cite the bugarron, a term used in Puerto Rican society to describe a male who is always the one to penetrate the male partner, yet always considers himself heterosexual. The bugarron blatantly dismisses the notion of his partner’s masculinity, and confirms his partner as the â€Å"woman† of the situation by calling his partner names such as mujer, mami, mamita, or loca. (96) Furthermore, the bugarron’s â€Å"usage of sexuality is highly ritualized to conserve his manhood and avoid being questioned about it. †(Casper, Ramirez 97) The desire to only be a penetrator and never a recipient of penetration serves as a political metaphor. The perception of a penetrator as heterosexual and undeniably male is underscored by masculine traits such as strength and dominance. Pingueros, a name given to male prostitutes in Cuba who only penetrate and refuse to be penetrated, represent the conquering of foreign bodies when solicited by gay tourists. (Chant, Kraske 139) This representation mirrors the notion of Cuba not just fending off but successfully invading and â€Å"screwing back† the imperialist, capitalist nation that has – or might wish to – exploit Cuba for its own self-interests. Just like the concept of prescribing gender to an active and passive partner in sexual intercourse between two men was reached over time by way of changing attitudes, beliefs, and perceptions, attitudes and behaviors toward homosexuality in general changing over time is also to be considered. Cultures are not static; they change over time, as do the notions of gender and sexuality in a culture. (Casper, Ramirez 27) Over the past decades, Cuba has witnessed a certain degree of change in attitudes and actions toward homosexuality on behalf of Cuban society at large as well as on behalf of the state.